{"id":2308,"date":"2017-06-01T12:00:00","date_gmt":"2017-06-01T10:00:00","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.oikonomia.it\/?post_type=articolo&p=2308"},"modified":"2026-04-13T08:50:39","modified_gmt":"2026-04-13T06:50:39","slug":"the-importance-of-sports-in-u-s-higher-education","status":"publish","type":"articolo","link":"https:\/\/www.oikonomia.it\/en\/2017\/giugno\/the-importance-of-sports-in-us-higher-education\/","title":{"rendered":"The Importance of Sports in U.S. Higher Education"},"content":{"rendered":"

Introduction<\/strong><\/p>\n

Sports have played an important role in American higher education for the past 150 years. Many scholars argue that sports, combined with academics, develop in students the virtues of tolerance, involvement, community spirit and leadership. Conversely, many researchers maintain that intercollegiate sports have a disproportionate importance, resources, power, and attention that harms student performance, academic programs, and the academic and research mission of American institutions of higher learning.<\/p>\n

Sports in U.S. Higher Education<\/strong><\/p>\n

Before 1850 athletics were peripheral to American higher education: \u201cIf there was a need for physical activity in the student regimen, college presidents and deans thought manual labor in the form of farming or clearing boulders from college lands fit the bill perfectly\u201d (Thelin and Edwards 2014). However, by the 1890s student bodies themselves had organized intercollegiate athletic organizations and competitions in several \u201civy league\u201d institutions to satisfy their need for athletics. These early athletic events \u201cincluded mechanisms for raising money, charging fees, sponsoring events, and selling tickets\u201d with or without the administrations\u2019 supervision (Thelin and Edwards 2014). Thus, from its origins, sports in American higher education have been linked to commercialism.<\/p>\n

In the early 20th century, New England colleges and universities, particularly Yale \u201cthe cradle of coaches,\u201d led the way to the administration\u2019s financial and political control of intercollegiate athletics. In 1901, Harvard hired Bill Reid, \u201cas a well-paid, full-time football coach\u201d, setting the standard for the professionalization of athletic coaches (Thelin and Edwards 2014). Yale\u2019s Walter Camp was the first to \u201ccreate an enterprising network of syndicated newspaper columns, annual guides, endorsements, and other lucrative, influential college sports publications\u201d (Thelin and Edwards 2014).<\/p>\n

Between the two World Wars the Northeast lost its dominance in varsity sports. The University of Chicago pioneered \u201cthe structure and control of high powered varsity sports programs\u201d (Thelin and Edwards 2014). At the same time, varsity sports became \u201ca symbolic litmus test of regional and\/or ethnic esteem and assimilation\u201d (Thelin and Edwards 2014). This was the case, for example, of the mid-western, Catholic, and mostly Irish-American University of Notre Dame in the 1920s. Since 1966 Super Bowls have taken place mostly in Miami (10 times), New Orleans (10 times), and Los Angeles (7 times) (Wood 2010).<\/p>\n

Nevertheless, since the turn of the 20th century students and alumni lamented that preference has been given to money-making spectator sports, like football and basketball, to the exclusion of other sports (Thelin and Edwards 2014). In the late 1960s, as track, soccer, lacrosse, hockey, wrestling, baseball, and swimming competitors demanded equal treatment, athletic scholarships began to be granted to athletes of these sports. Conversely, by the 1970s, this inclusiveness raised athletic departments\u2019 operating costs that were not able to be covered by the relatively small fan base of these \u201cnew\u201d varsity sports (Thelin and Edwards 2014).<\/p>\n

Opportunities for intercollegiate sports as well as the construction of sports facilities increased at the end of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century \u201creaching an estimated combined enrollment of 7.1 million students, with an estimated 5.3 million students considered heavy or regular users of established campus recreational sports programs and facilities\u201d (NIRSA, 2005). At the same time, American higher education \u201cfaced growing philosophical and economic problems\u201d within their athletic departments (Thelin and Edwards 2014). The 1991 and 2001 reform reports of the John S. and James L. Knight Foundation\u2019s Commission on Intercollegiate Athletics lamented the lack of government intervention, especially from the Department of Education, U.S. State Department, and the Executive, and highlighted the limits of such voluntary associations as the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), in restoring academic and fiscal integrity in the governance of intercollegiate athletics (Knight 2010). Its 2010 reform report demanded measures \u201cto contain athletics spending, to curb its commercialism, give priority to educational values, and treat college athletes as students first and foremost and not as professionals\u201d (Knight 2010).<\/p>\n

The Benefits of Sports in Higher Education<\/strong><\/p>\n

As James Howell\u2019s 1659 Paramoigraphy<\/em> proverb states \u201cAll work and no play makes Jack a dull boy\u201d (Howell 1659: 12). Per the Council for the Advancement of Standards in (U.S.) higher education (CAS):<\/p>\n

\n

Recreational sports programs are viewed as essential components of higher education, supplementing the educational process through enhancement of students\u2019 physical, mental, and emotional development. Students who participate in recreational sports tend to develop positive self-images, awareness of strengths, increased tolerance and self-control, stronger social interaction skills, and maturity \u2013all gleaned from recreational sports experiences (CAS 2008: 2).<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n

Hence, athletics not only aid students keep an active lifestyle for life, they also teach the qualities of tolerance, confidence, the abilities to deal with setbacks and attacks, dealing with authority, obedience, managing conflict, concentration, focus and resilience, and a sense of self-worth and self-discipline (Kendrick 2015).<\/p>\n

Several studies support the assertion that athletics can contribute to the development of self-esteem (Bailey 2014). Such self-confidence can affect other areas of life like academic performance. Many studies show that exercise releases endorphins that \u201ctrigger a positive feeling in the body, similar to that of morphine\u201d (Smitha 2016). This positive feeling encourages peace of mind and greater concentration enhancing performance in other fields. Therefore, sports education along with academics result in the \u201call-round development of the students as well as recruitment and retention\u201d (CAS 2008: 2).<\/p>\n

Nevertheless, at the dawn of the 21st millennium, American colleges and universities are more inclined to emphasize students\u2019 mental development to the detriment of their physical development: \u201cThe overall outcome of this is that the developing groups of graduates and professionals have weak bodies and poor physique\u201d (NIRSA 2005). Therefore, the National Intramural-Recreational Sports Association (NIRSA) urged that curriculums include sports, games and physical health education for the all-round development of the students (NIRSA 2005).<\/p>\n

NIRSA also observed that although academic institutions differ one from another, it is up to administrations to fully commit themselves in finding the best ways to implement sports as an integral part of the curriculum (NIRSA 2005). NIRSA in its 1996 reform report delineated seven primary goals of recreational sports programs:<\/p>\n

    \n
  1. To provide participation in a variety of activities that satisfy the diverse needs of students, faculty, and staff members, and where appropriate, guests, alumni, and public participants can become involved.<\/li>\n
  2. To provide value to participants by helping individuals develop and maintain a positive self-image, stronger social interactive skills, enhanced physical fitness, and good mental health.<\/li>\n
  3. To enhance college and university student and faculty recruitment and retention initiatives.<\/li>\n
  4. To coordinate the use of campus recreation facilities in cooperation with other administrative units such as athletics, physical education, and student activities.<\/li>\n
  5. To provide extracurricular education opportunities through participation in recreational sports and the provision of relevant leadership positions.<\/li>\n
  6. To contribute positively to institutional relations through significant and high-quality recreational sports programming.<\/li>\n
  7. To cooperate with academic units, focusing on the development of recreational sports curricula and accompanying laboratory experiences.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

    As the Roman poet Juvenal taught as the first desirable thing in life: Mens sana in corpore sano<\/em> \u2013 \u201ca sound mind resides only in a sound body\u201d (Juvenal 2001:10.356). A healthy and strong body is not possible without sports and physical activities. Pope Emeritus Benedict XVI also emphasizes the educational potential of sport: \u201cSports have a considerable potential for education especially among the youth, and for this reason, it plays a role of great importance not only in the use of free time, but also in the formation of the human person\u201d (Benedict XVI 2009).<\/p>\n

    The Dark Side of Sports in U.S. Higher Education<\/strong><\/p>\n

    Nonetheless, as Maria Edgeworth\u2019s Harry and Lucy Concluded<\/em> proverb states: \u201cAll play and no work makes Jack a mere toy\u201d (Edgeworth 1825). At the end of the 20th century and start of the 21st, as athletics increased and developed, so did the reevaluation of their institutional role and best practices in their administration (CAS 2008: 1). Although recent research suggests that the inclusion of intercollegiate athletics benefits the academic missions of higher education institutions (Franklin 2006; Umbach, Palmer, Kuh, and Hannah 2006); others have warned that \u201cthe commercialization, exploitation, and distractions that have grown out of [American] intercollegiate athletics are detrimental to higher education\u201d (Vanover and DeBowes 2013:44).<\/p>\n

    In considering the relationship between intercollegiate-football success and non-athlete student performance during nine football seasons (1999 through 2007), the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) concluded that,<\/p>\n

    \n

    The team\u2019s success significantly reduces male grades relative to female grades. This phenomenon is only present in fall quarters, which coincides with the football season. Using survey data, we find that males are more likely than females to increase alcohol consumption, decrease studying, and increase partying in response to the success of the team. Yet, females also report that their behavior is affected by athletic success, suggesting that their performance is likely impaired but that this effect is masked by the practice of grade curving (Lindo 2011: 1).<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n

    Moreover, during the 2005-2008 season in Football Bowl Subdivision Institutions athletics spending rose while academic spending was flat: \u201cthe growth over time for athletics spending was 37.9% compared to 20.5% for academic spending\u201d (Knight 2010: 4). In 2005, the medians for academic spending per student compared to athletics spending per athlete was of $11,079 USD vs $61,218 USD. By 2008 it was $13,349 USD vs $84,446 USD (Knight 2010:4). Thus, \u201cmedian athletics spending per athlete at institutions in each major athletics conference ranges from 4 to nearly 11 times more than the median spending on education-related activities per student\u201d (Knight 2010:4).<\/p>\n

    In its 2011 reform report the Knight Foundation laments that \u201cthe problems of big-time college sports have grown rather than diminished\u201d (p. 4). The most flagrant problems highlighted in the report \u2013academic transgressions, a financial arms race, and commercialization\u2013 all point to the ever-increasing distance between U.S. higher education\u2019s mission and big-time college sports.<\/p>\n

    Conclusion<\/strong><\/p>\n

    Until the late 1800s, intramural sports were perceived by most U.S. higher education institutions to be of little instructional or educational value. By the 1950s there was a general realization of the intrinsic educational value of sports participation. The beginning of the 21st century experienced even greater expansion of collegiate recreational sports opportunities and facilities while at the same time questioning the role of athletics in American higher education.<\/p>\n

    Academic learning and sports education complement each other: \u201cRecreational sports programming significantly impacts [in a positive way] student life, development, and learning, as well as recruitment and retention\u201d (CAS 2008: 2). However, there is great concern that big-time intramural sports are a threat to American higher education and whether it is desirable to be investing large amounts of public and student money in college sports without consideration of non-monetary costs as well monetary costs to the detriment of academic programs and students\u2019 overall education.<\/p>\n

    Although NIRSA reports major improvements between big-time sports and academic achievement (see NIRSA 2004b), whether such necessary considerations will have an extensive and lasting impact, intercollegiate athletics continue to be, for better or worse (or both), an important part of U.S. higher education.<\/p>\n

    As Pope Emeritus Benedict XVI prayed during his General Audience of January 9, 2008: \u201cMay sport\u2026 increasingly be a vehicle of education for the values of honesty, solidarity and fraternity, especially for the younger generation\u201d. And at his General Audience of September 21, 2005, he added: May sport be \u201ca tool for the teaching of life\u2019s ethical and spiritual values.\u201d Pope Francis has echoed those remarks in his video message to the 2017 Super Bowl in Houston, Texas: \u201cBy participating in sport, we are able to go beyond our own self-interest \u2013and in a healthy way\u2013 we learn to sacrifice, to grow in fidelity and respect the rules\u201d (Francis 2017).<\/p>\n

    Bibliography<\/strong><\/p>\n

    Bailey, Richard. 2014. \u201cDo Sports and Other Physical Activities Build Self-Esteem?\u201d Psychology Today<\/em>, August 7. Accessed February 3, 2017.<\/p>\n

    Benedict XVI. 2009. Pontifical Message of His Holiness Benedict XVI to Cardinal Stanis\u0142aw Ry\u0142ko, President of the Pontifical Council for the Laity on the Occasion of the International Study Seminar on: \u201cSport, Education, Faith: For a New Season for the Catholic Sports Movement\u201d, November 3. Vatican City, Vatican City Press.<\/p>\n

    Benedict XVI. 2008. General Audience of Wednesday, January 9. Vatican City: Vatican City Press.<\/p>\n

    Benedict XVI. 2005. General Audience of Wednesday, September 21. Vatican City: Vatican City Press.<\/p>\n

    Bhandari, Smitha. 2016. \u201cExercise and Depression.\u201d WebMD<\/em>, February 24. Accessed February 3, 2017.<\/p>\n

    Council for the Advancement of Standards in Higher Education (CAS). 2008. The Role of Recreational Sports Program<\/em>. Washington, D.C.: CAS.<\/p>\n

    Edgeworth, Maria. 1825. Harry and Lucy Concluded<\/em>. London, U.K.: Charles Wood.<\/p>\n

    Francis. 2017. \u201cVideo Message of Pope Francis on the Occasion of the 2017 Super Bowl in Houston, Texas\u201d. Zenit<\/em>, February 5.<\/p>\n

    Franklin, Bernard. 2006. \u201cCollege Athletics as a Model for Promoting Academic Integrity in Higher education\u201d. Mid-Western Educational Researcher<\/em> 19 (1): 15-23.<\/p>\n

    Gallo, Andrea. 2016. \u201cSpecial report: Why Are Athletics Largely Immune to Higher Education Budget Cuts? Desire for Prestige, Publicity Keeps Programs Funded\u201d. The New Orleans Advocate<\/em>, February 12. Accessed February 3, 2017.<\/p>\n

    Howell, James. 1659. Paramoigraphy<\/em>. London, U.K.: John Grismond.<\/p>\n

    Iuvenalis\/Juvenal, Decimus Iunius. 2001. The Satires<\/em>. Translated by N. Rudd. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford Press.<\/p>\n

    Kendrick, Keith. 2014. \u201c10 Life Skills Sport Gives Your Kids\u201d. Huffpost Parent<\/em>, August 14. Accessed February 3, 2017.<\/p>\n

    Knight Foundation. 2010. Restoring the Balance. Dollars, Values, and the Future of College Sports<\/em>. Miami, FL: Knight Commission on Intercollegiate Athletics.<\/p>\n

    Knight Foundation. 2001. A Call to Action. Reconnecting College Sports and Higher Education<\/em>. Miami, FL: Knight Commission on Intercollegiate Athletics.<\/p>\n

    Lindo, Jason M., Isaac D. Swensen, and Glen R. Waddell. 2011. \u201cAre Big-Time Sports a Threat to Student Achievement?\u201d National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) Working Paper Series. Cambridge, MA: NBER.<\/p>\n

    National Intramural-Recreational Sports Association (NIRSA). 2005. Collegiate Recreational Sports Facility Construction Report<\/em>. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.<\/p>\n

    National Intramural-Recreational Sports Association (NIRSA). 2004a. The Value of Recreational Sports in Higher Education<\/em>. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.<\/p>\n

    National Intramural-Recreational Sports Association (NIRSA). 2004b. The Value of Recreational Sports in Higher Education \u2013Impact on Student Enrollment, Success, and Buying Power<\/em>. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.<\/p>\n

    National Intramural-Recreational Sports Association (NIRSA). 1996. General and Specialty Standards for Collegiate Recreational Sports<\/em>. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.<\/p>\n

    Thelin, John R., and Jason R. Edwards. 2014. \u201cCollege Athletics. History of Athletics in U.S. Colleges and Universities.\u201d StateUniversity.com. Accessed January 29, 2017.<\/p>\n

    Umbach, Paul. D., Megan M. Palmer, George D. Kuh, and Stephanie J. Hannah. 2006. \u201cIntercollegiate Athletes and Effective Practices: Winning Combination or Losing Effort?\u201d Research in Higher Education<\/em> 47(6):709-733.<\/p>\n

    Vanover, Eric T., and Michael M. DeBowes. 2013. \u201cThe Impact of Intercollegiate Athletics in Higher education\u201d. Academic Perspectives in Higher Education Journal<\/em> (1): 40-63.<\/p>\n

    Wood, Robert. 2010. \u201cGuide to the Superbowl Host Cities.\u201d Top-end Sports. Accessed February 6, 2017.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"template":"","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"_lmt_disableupdate":"no","_lmt_disable":"no"},"autori":[825],"fascicolo":[250],"class_list":["post-2308","articolo","type-articolo","status-publish","hentry","autori-alejandro-crosthwaite","fascicolo-giugno-2017"],"acf":[],"yoast_head":"\nOikonomia - The Importance of Sports in U.S. Higher Education<\/title>\n<meta name=\"description\" content=\"Leggi l'articolo a cura di Alejandro Crosthwaite, pubblicato nel numero di Giugno 2017. 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